Chapter 16: Constructors and Final fields

Co-authored-by: Tamás Hadházy <85063808+Hels15@users.noreply.github.com>
Co-authored-by: tannal <tannal2409@gmail.com>
Co-authored-by: hadha <helsgithub15@gmail.com>
Co-authored-by: Thalia Archibald <thalia@archibald.dev>
Co-authored-by: RobertObkircher <robert.obkircher@gmail.com>

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+# Chapter 16: Constructors and Final fields
+
+# Table of Contents
+
+1. [Constructors](#constructors)
+2. [Initialization code](#initialization-code)
+3. [Final fields](#final-fields)
+4. [Multiple Decls](#multiple-declarations-of-the-same-type)
+
+In this chapter, we add constructors and final fields.
+
+You can also read [this chapter](https://github.com/SeaOfNodes/Simple/tree/linear-chapter16) in a linear Git revision history on the [linear](https://github.com/SeaOfNodes/Simple/tree/linear) branch and [compare](https://github.com/SeaOfNodes/Simple/compare/linear-chapter15...linear-chapter16) it to the previous chapter.
+
+## Constructors
+
+A big problem with the [Chapter 13](../chapter13/README.md) refs is that
+not-null fields always start out `null`.  This is fixed in this chapter, where
+a *constructor* syntax is required to initialize `final` and not-null fields.
+
+Fields are initialized in three ways:
+
+1. A default zero/null initialization for fields that allow it.  No special
+   syntax is required.
+```
+int x;                    // x is initialized to 0
+struct Ref { Ref ptr?; }; // Instances of Ref will have ptr initialized to null
+return new Ref.ptr;       // Returns a null
+```
+
+2. The type declaration can specify an initial value.  Later allocations will
+   start with this value. 
+```
+int x = 5;                // x is initialized to 5
+struct Point { int x=1; int y=1; }; // Point x and y will start as 1, not 0
+return new Point.x;       // Returns a 1
+```
+
+3. The allocation can specify an initial value.
+   
+```
+struct Point { int x=1; int y=1; }; // Point x and y will start as 1, not 0
+return new Point { x=3; }.x;        // Returns a 3
+```
+
+Not-null and final fields *must* be initialized before first use and before the
+end of the allocation.  They can be initialized in either the declaration or
+allocation.  They do not start with the default value, although the
+initialization can be to the default.
+
+```
+struct Person { u8[] name; };
+return new Person; // ERROR: 'Person' is not fully initialized, field 'name' needs to be set in a constructor
+```
+
+
+## Initialization code
+
+The parser allows a full Block statement to be parsed in either the type
+declaration or the allocation.  Any amount of code is legal, including
+`while` loops and `return`s.
+
+```
+struct Square {
+    flt side = arg;
+    flt diag = arg*arg/2;    
+    // Newtons approximation to the square root, computed in a constructor.
+    // The actual allocation will copy in this result as the initial
+    // value for 'diag'.
+    while( 1 ) {
+        // The next-guess variable "next" is not a field in Square, 
+        // because it does not appear at the top level
+        flt next = (side/diag + diag)/2;
+        if( next == diag ) break;
+        diag = next;
+    }
+};
+return new Square;
+```
+
+```
+struct Buffer {
+    if( arg < 0 || arg > 1000000 )
+      return null; // Size out of bounds
+    u8[] buffer = new u8[arg];
+};
+return new Buffer;
+```
+
+
+## Final fields
+
+Final fields are declared with a `!` before the name.
+This decision is revisited in the next chapter.
+
+```
+int !x = 17; // Final field x
+x = 3;       // ERROR: cannot re-assign a final field
+```
+
+```
+struct Person { u8[]? !name; };
+return new Person { name = null; }; // OK: final name is assigned
+```
+
+```
+struct Point { int !x; int !y; int !z; };
+return new Point { x=arg; y=z; z=x; }; // ERROR:  'Point' is not fully initialized, field 'y' needs to be set in a constructor
+```
+
+```
+struct Point { int x; int y; int z; }; // Fields not-final, default to 0
+return new Point { x=arg; y=z; z=x; }; // Ok: x=arg, y=0, z=arg
+```
+
+
+### Multiple declarations of the same type
+
+Also new this chapter is allowing multiple declarations with the same type, as
+is commonly seen in other languages:
+
+```
+int x,y; // Two int variables declared
+struct Point { int x,y,z; }; // Three fields declared
+```
+
+```
+int !x=3,!y=5; // Two int variables declared, both are final and initialized
+```
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